自我疼惜與自我批判：COVID-19疫情期間臺灣留學生感受歧視與壓力關係的調節作用

Self-Compassion Versus Self-Uncompassion: Moderating the Relationships Between Discrimination and Stress Among Taiwanese International Students

過去研究指出，自我疼惜對壓力具有調節作用。自我疼惜的構念包含正、負向兩因素，最常用的自我疼惜測量工具為：自我疼惜量表（self-compassion scale），是由正向的「自我疼惜」（self-compassion）與負向的「自我批判」（self-critical/self-uncompassion）分量表組成。研究者認為，這兩個分量表在對壓力的調節作用並不一致，應分開討論。此外，關於自我疼惜是否具有跨文化調節作用的研究較少。因此，本研究以在美國的臺灣留學生為樣本，探討在COVID-19疫情期間，留學生探討自我疼惜與自我批判在感知歧視經歷與壓力之間的調節作用。本研究招募152位臺灣留學生，並使用日常歧視量表、感知壓力量表和自我疼惜量表作為測量工具。研究結果發現，對於臺灣留學生而言，正向的「自我疼惜」並沒有調節歧視與壓力之間的關係；相反地，負向的「自我批判」能夠調節歧視與壓力之間的關係，自我批判可減緩感知歧視經歷對於壓力的影響。研究者認為，文化因素和疫情獨特特徵使得自我批判相關因素（如自我批評和孤立）在之前被認為對心理健康有害的情況下，發揮了調節作用。華人文化強調內省和自我批評，而儒家文化認為具有積極的作用，並可促進社會適應。此外，孤立有助於控制疫情並減少對疾病感染的焦慮，因此，在疫情期間自我批判可在歧視與壓力之間發揮調節作用，成為一種保護因素。

Background and Purpose

The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered global psychological distress, particularly among Asian populations who experienced increased racial discrimination. Taiwanese international students studying in Western countries faced unique stressors due to racialized stigmatization, cultural isolation, and pandemic-related fears. Previous studies suggest that self-compassion can mitigate stress, but findings have been inconsistent because the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) (Neff, 2003a) integrates both positive (self-compassion) and negative (self-uncompassion or self-criticism) factors. These subdimensions often show weak correlations and potentially divergent psychological effects. Moreover, the moderating role of self-compassion in cross-cultural contexts remains underexplored. This study investigated how self-compassion and selfuncompassion moderated the relationship between perceived discrimination and stress among Taiwanese international students in the United States during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Literature Review

Self-compassion refers to treating oneself kindly during suffering, recognizing shared humanity, and maintaining balanced mindfulness toward one’s emotions. Conversely, self-uncompassion encompasses self-judgment, isolation, and overidentification with pain. Although self-compassion is generally considered beneficial, its cultural interpretation varies. In collectivist cultures influenced by Confucianism, self-criticism and restraint may function adaptively, promoting social harmony and self-improvement rather than pathology. Empirical studies show mixed evidence: while self-compassion often buffers the effects of stress and discrimination in Western samples (Li et al., 2022; Ngo, 2019), in Asian contexts, self-criticism can serve constructive purposes (Chen & Chen, 2019; Lai & Su, 2015). Cross-cultural findings also reveal that Taiwanese individuals report lower self-compassion and higher self-criticism than Western participants, yet both traits can coexist as protective mechanisms. During pandemics, self-reflection and emotional endurance—traditionally emphasized in East Asian coping—may attenuate perceived threat and social anxiety. Therefore, distinguishing between the positive and negative dimensions of the SCS is crucial for culturally nuanced understanding of coping mechanisms among international students.

Method

A total of 152 Taiwanese international students (87 females, 65 males; M age = 26.16 years) studying in the U.S. during the pandemic were recruited via online student association networks (Facebook, Instagram). Participants completed three validated instruments:

1. Everyday Discrimination Scale (EDS) (Yu et al., 2020) – modified for COVID-19 context (α = .94);

2. Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) (Cohen et al., 1983) – assessing stress during the pandemic (α = .95);

3. Taiwanese version of the Self-Compassion Scale (Chen & Chen, 2019) – yielding two subscales: self-compassion (α = .90) and self-uncompassion (α = .93).

Moderation analyses were conducted using hierarchical regression, entering perceived discrimination and each self-compassion dimension as predictors, followed by interaction terms. Variables were mean-centered, and interaction effects were examined using simple slope analyses.

Results

A significant positive correlation was found between perceived discrimination and stress (r = .45, p < .01), confirming that discrimination was associated with higher stress. The moderating effect of self-compassion was not significant (ΔR2 = .002, p = .590), indicating that positive self-compassion did not buffer the relationship between discrimination and stress. However, self-uncompassion showed a significant moderating effect (β = 0 .165, p < .05; ΔR2 = .016), with a large effect size (f 2 = 0.68).

Specifically, individuals with high self-uncompassion exhibited higher stress under low discrimination but a flattening of stress at high levels of discrimination. In contrast, low self-uncompassion individuals showed a continuous increase in stress as discrimination intensified. Thus, selfuncompassion—characterized by self-reflection, vigilance, and emotional restraint—appeared to mitigate the impact of discrimination at higher levels of exposure.

Discussion

The findings highlight a paradoxical yet culturally coherent phenomenon: while self-uncompassion (self-criticism, isolation, over-identification) is typically associated with poor psychological adjustment in Western contexts, it served as a protective factor for Taiwanese students during the pandemic. Several cultural explanations account for this.

First, self-judgment and introspection, grounded in Confucian teachings (“Examine oneself thrice daily”), promote self-improvement and responsibility in response to adversity. When confronted with discrimination, Taiwanese students may interpret negative encounters through self-evaluation, striving for behavioral adjustment rather than external blame. This introspective coping may reduce emotional reactivity and preserve social harmony.

Second, isolation, often viewed negatively in Western psychology, aligns with pandemic containment norms and collectivist values emphasizing self-control for communal safety. Temporary withdrawal and emotional restraint helped students manage both infection anxiety and interpersonal tension.

Third, cultural ideals of endurance and humility—expressed in proverbs like ‘’No pain, no gain” and “Be strict with oneself, lenient with others”—encourage emotional moderation and perseverance. Thus, self-uncompassion may function as culturally sanctioned emotional regulation, transforming self-criticism into self-discipline and adaptive vigilance.

By contrast, self-compassion did not moderate the discrimination–stress link. In Chinese societies, self-kindness can conflict with traditional notions of endurance, potentially undermining perceived moral strength or responsibility. Students may therefore underutilize self-kindness as a coping strategy, perceiving it as self-indulgent. This cultural incongruence may explain why self-compassion’s buffering effect, observed in Western populations, was absent among Taiwanese participants.

Implications and Recommendations

This study expands the cross-cultural understanding of self-compassion by revealing that self-uncompassion, though nominally negative, can serve adaptive functions under specific sociocultural and situational conditions. For practitioners and educators working with Asian international students, several implications arise:

1. Counseling practice: Counselors should recognize that self-criticism in Asian clients may reflect culturally normative self-regulation rather than pathology. Interventions can focus on balanced self-reflection—encouraging insight without excessive self-blame.

2. Educational interventions: Universities should promote mindfulness and selfcompassion training tailored for collectivist cultures. Programs combining compassion with reflective self-discipline could enhance resilience without violating cultural norms.

3. Cross-cultural research: Future studies should further test measurement invariance of the SCS across cultures and pandemics, exploring whether self-uncompassion consistently functions as a stress-buffering mechanism in collectivist settings.

4. Preventive strategies: Self-compassion workshops can cultivate flexible coping—teaching students to integrate self-kindness and self-reflection, transforming internal critique into constructive motivation.

Conclusion

This research clarifies the nuanced role of self-attitudes in stress regulation among Taiwanese international students during COVID-19. Self-compassion failed to buffer stress, whereas self-uncompassion emerged as an effective moderator, alleviating discrimination-induced stress through culturally rooted mechanisms of introspection, endurance, and self-restraint. These findings challenge Western-centric interpretations of self-compassion and underscore the importance of cultural context in psychological resilience. Understanding both compassionate and uncompassionate self-processes provides a more comprehensive framework for supporting the mental health of international students navigating cultural adaptation, discrimination, and global crises.